Abstract  Nanotechnology has emerged at the forefront of science research and technology development. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are major building blocks of this new technology. They possess unique electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties, with potential wide applications in the electronics, computer, aerospace, and other industries. CNTs exist in two forms, single-wall (SWCNTs) and multi-wall (MWCNTs). They are manufactured predominately by electrical arc discharge, laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition processes; these processes involve thermally stripping carbon atoms off from carbon-bearing compounds. SWCNT formation requires catalytic metals. There has been a great concern that if CNTs, which are very light, enter the working environment as suspended particulate matter (PM) of respirable sizes, they could pose an occupational inhalation exposure hazard. Very recently, MWCNTs and other carbonaceous nanoparticles in fine (< 2.5 mu m) PM aggregates have been found in combustion streams of methane, propane, and natural-gas flames of typical stoves; indoor and outdoor fine PM samples were reported to contain significant fractions of MWCNTs. Here we review several rodent studies in which test dusts were administered intratracheally or intrapharyngeally to assess the pulmonary toxicity of manufactured CNTs, and a few in vitro studies to assess biomarkers of toxicity released in CNT-treated skin cell cultures. The results of the rodent studies collectively showed that regardless of the process by which CNTs were synthesized and the types and amounts of metals they contained, CNTs were capable of producing inflammation, epithelioid granulomas (microscopic nodules), fibrosis, and biochemical/toxicological changes in the lungs. Comparative toxicity studies in which mice were given equal weights of test materials showed that SWCNTs were more toxic than quartz, which is considered a serious occupational health hazard if it is chronically inhaled; ultrafine carbon black was shown to produce minimal lung responses. The differences in opinions of the investigators about the potential hazards of exposures to CNTs are discussed here. Presented here are also the possible mechanisms of CNT pathogenesis in the lung and the impact of residual metals and other impurities on the toxicological manifestations. The toxicological hazard assessment of potential human exposures to airborne CNTs and occupational exposure limits for these novel compounds are discussed in detail. Environmental fine PM is known to form mainly from combustion of fuels, and has been reported to be a major contributor to the induction of cardiopulmonary diseases by pollutants. Given that manufactured SWCNTs and MWCNTs were found to elicit pathological changes in the lungs, and SWCNTs (administered to the lungs of mice) were further shown to produce respiratory function impairments, retard bacterial clearance after bacterial inoculation, damage the mitochondrial DNA in aorta, increase the percent of aortic plaque, and induce atherosclerotic lesions in the brachiocephalic artery of the heart, it is speculated that exposure to combustion-generated MWCNTs in fine PM may play a significant role in air pollution-related cardiopulmonary diseases. Therefore, CNTs from manufactured and combustion sources in the environment could have adverse effects on human health.

Abstract  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of recalcitrant and bioaccumulative halogenated compounds that have emerged as a major environmental pollutant. PBDEs are used as a flame-retardant and are found in consumer goods such as electrical equipment, construction materials, coatings, textiles and polyurethane foam (furniture padding). Similar in structure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), PBDEs resist degradation in the environment. Less brominated PBDEs like tetra-, penta- and hexa- demonstrate high affinity for lipids and can accumulate in the bodies of animals and humans. Breast milk from North American women contained much higher amounts of PBDEs than levels in breast milk from Swedish women, indicating that North American exposures to PBDEs may be particularly high. Evidence to date suggests that tetra- and penta-BDEs are likely to be the more toxic and bioaccumulative of the PBDE compounds, compared to octa- and deca-congeners. PBDEs are sold as mixtures, under names such as "pentabromodiphenyl ether" and "octabromodiphenyl ether." The pentabromo product is a mixture of tetra-BDEs and penta-BDEs in approximately equal amounts. Pentabromo consists of PBDEs that are believed to be the most toxic. This mixture has been banned by the European Union, but is still used in North America. The United States is the leading producer and user of pentabromo. In August 2003, the State of California passed a bill to phase out the use of penta- and octa-PBDE by 2008. The toxicology of PBDEs is not well understood, but PBDEs have been associated with tumors, neurodevelopmental toxicity and thyroid hormone imbalance. The neurotoxic effects of PBDEs are similar to those observed for PCBs. Children exposed to PBDEs are prone to subtle but measurable developmental problems. It is presumed that PBDEs are endocrine disruptors, but research in this area is scant. Further studies are imperative in a multitude of health and environmental disciplines to determine the adverse effects and mode of action of this widespread emerging pollutant on human health.

Abstract  The purpose of this report is to provide an updated analysis of the bioaccumulation and environmental transformation of decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE), to be considered in the context of the information and analyses already published in the final screening assessment on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (Canada 2006). This evaluation is considered a state of the science review. While this report does not critique individual studies, it considers the reliability of individual studies when forming a weight of evidence for persistence, bioaccumulation or inherent toxicity to non-human biota. This report considers materials published up to August 25, 2009.

Abstract  This critical review of the available human health safety data, relating to carbon nanotubes (CNTs), was conducted in order to assess the risks associated with CNT exposure. Determining the toxicity related to CNT exploitation is of great relevance and importance due to the increased potential for human exposure to CNTs within occupational, environmental and consumer settings. When this information is combined with knowledge on the likely exposure levels of humans to CNTs, it will enable risk assessments to be conducted to assess the risks posed to human health. CNTs are a diverse group of materials and vary with regards to their wall number (single and multi-walled CNTs are evident), length, composition, and surface chemistry. The attributes of CNTs that were identified as being most likely to drive the observed toxicity have been considered, and include CNT length, metal content, tendency to aggregate/agglomerate and surface chemistry. Of particular importance, is the contribution of the fibre paradigm to CNT toxicity, whereby the length of CNTs appears to be critical to their toxic potential. Mechanistic processes that are critical to CNT toxicity will also be discussed, with the findings insinuating that CNTs can exert an oxidative response that stimulates inflammatory, genotoxic and cytotoxic consequences. Consequently, it may transpire that a common mechanism is responsible for driving CNT toxicity, despite the fact that CNTs are a diverse population of materials. The similarity of the structure of CNTs to that of asbestos has prompted concern surrounding the exposure of humans, and so the applicability of the fibre paradigm to CNTs will be evaluated. It is also necessary to determine the systemic availability of CNTs following exposure, to determine where potential targets of toxicity are, and to thereby direct in vitro investigations within the most appropriate target cells. CNTs are therefore a group of materials whose useful exploitable properties prompts their increased production and utilization within diverse applications, so that ensuring their safety is of vital importance.

Abstract  This book contains published investigations presented at the 10th International Conference on Textile Composites that will benefit scientists and engineers in the textile composites industry.

Abstract  Flame retardants for polypropylene (PP) and their potential suitability for use in fibre applications are reviewed. Five principal types of generic flame retardant systems for inclusion in polypropylene fibres have been identified as phosphorus-containing, halogen-containing, silicon-containing, metal hydrate and oxide and the more recently developed nanocomposite flame retardant formulations. The most effective to date comprise halogen–antimony and phosphorus–bromine combinations, which while having limited performance also are falling environmental pressures. Alternatives are discussed as well as means of enhancing the effectiveness and hence usefulness of phosphorus–nitrogen formulations normally used at concentrations too high for fibre inclusion. Of special interest is the potential for inclusion of functionalised nanoclays and recent observations that certain hindered amine stabilisers are effective at concentrations of 1% or so.